Lithography Was a New Technology of What Art Form That Developed During This Period?

Charles Marion Russell's The Custer Fight (1903), with the range of tones fading toward the edges

Part of a serial on the
History of printing
Woodblock press (200) Movable type (1040) Printing press (1454) Etching (ca. 1500) Mezzotint (1642) Aquatint (1768) Lithography (1796) Chromolithography (1837) Rotary press (1843) Offset printing (1875) Hectograph (19th century) Hot metal typesetting (1886) Mimeograph (1890) Screen printing (1907) Spirit duplicator (1923) Dye-sublimation (1957) Phototypesetting (1960s) Dot matrix printer (1964) Laser printing (1969) Thermal press (ca. 1972) Inkjet printing (1976) 3D printing (1986) Digital press (1993)

Lithography (from Greek λίθος – lithos, 'stone' + γράφειν – graphein, 'to write') is a method for printing using a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a completely smoothen surface. Invented in 1796 by German author and thespian Alois Senefelder as a inexpensive method of publishing theatrical works, ^{[ane] [2]} lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material. ^[iii]

Lithography originally used an image drawn (etched) into a blanket of wax or an oily substance applied to a plate of lithographic stone equally the medium to transfer ink to a blank paper sheet, and and then produce a printed page. In modern lithography, the image is fabricated of a polymer coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. To print an image lithographically, the flat surface of the rock plate is roughened slightly—etched—and divided into hydrophilic regions that accept a film of h2o, and thereby repel the greasy ink; and hydrophobic regions that repel water and have ink considering the surface tension is greater on the greasy prototype area, which remains dry. The image can be printed directly from the plate (the orientation of the image is reversed), or it tin can be get-go, by transferring the image onto a flexible sheet (rubber) for printing and publication.

Equally a printing technology, lithography is unlike from intaglio printing (gravure), wherein a plate is either engraved, etched, or stippled to score cavities to contain the printing ink; and woodblock printing, and letterpress printing, wherein ink is applied to the raised surfaces of messages or images. Virtually types of books of loftier-volume text are printed with get-go lithography, the virtually common form of press technology. The word lithography also denotes photolithography, a microfabrication technique used in the microsystem electronics industry to make integrated circuits and microelectromechanical systems.

Contents

• 1 The principle of lithography
  • ane.1 Lithography on limestone
  • 1.2 The modern lithographic process
• 2 Microlithography and nanolithography
• 3 Lithography every bit an artistic medium
• 4 Gallery
• 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 External links

The principle of lithography

Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the positive part of an prototype is a water-repelling ("hydrophobic") substance, while the negative image would be water-retaining ("hydrophilic"). Thus, when the plate is introduced to a compatible printing ink and h2o mixture, the ink will attach to the positive image and the h2o will make clean the negative image. This allows a flat impress plate to exist used, enabling much longer and more detailed print runs than the older physical methods of printing (e.thousand., intaglio printing, letterpress printing).

Lithography was invented past Alois Senefelder in Bohemia in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a smooth piece of limestone was used (hence the name "lithography": "lithos" (λιθος) is the aboriginal Greek word for stone). Subsequently the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, the gum sticking only to the non-oily surface. During press, water adhered to the gum standard arabic surfaces and avoided the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite.

Lithography on limestone

Lithography stone and mirror image print of a map of Munich

Lithography works because of the mutual repulsion of oil and water. The prototype is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium (hydrophobic) such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible. A wide range of oil-based media is available, but the durability of the image on the stone depends on the lipid content of the material being used, and its ability to withstand h2o and acid. After the drawing of the image, an aqueous solution of gum standard arabic, weakly acidified with nitric acid HNO_three is applied to the stone. The function of this solution is to create a hydrophilic layer of calcium nitrate salt, Ca(NO_iii)₂ , and mucilage standard arabic on all non-epitome surfaces. The gum solution penetrates into the pores of the stone, completely surrounding the original image with a hydrophilic layer that will not accept the printing ink. Using lithographic turpentine, the printer and then removes any excess of the greasy cartoon cloth, but a hydrophobic molecular picture show of information technology remains tightly bonded to the surface of the rock, rejecting the gum arabic and water, but ready to accept the oily ink. ^[4]

When printing, the stone is kept moisture with water. Naturally the water is attracted to the layer of gum and salt created by the acid wash. Printing ink based on drying oils such as linseed oil and varnish loaded with pigment is and then rolled over the surface. The water repels the greasy ink only the hydrophobic areas left by the original cartoon material accept it. When the hydrophobic prototype is loaded with ink, the stone and paper are run through a press which applies fifty-fifty pressure over the surface, transferring the ink to the paper and off the stone.

Senefelder had experimented during the early 19th century with multicolor lithography; in his 1819 volume, he predicted that the process would eventually be perfected and used to reproduce paintings. ^[1] Multi-color printing was introduced by a new procedure developed by Godefroy Engelmann (French republic) in 1837 known as chromolithography. ^[i] A separate stone was used for each color, and a impress went through the press separately for each stone. The primary claiming was to proceed the images aligned (in register). This method lent itself to images consisting of big areas of apartment color, and resulted in the characteristic affiche designs of this period.

"Lithography, or printing from soft stone, largely took the place of engraving in the product of English language commercial maps subsequently about 1852. It was a quick, cheap process and had been used to print British ground forces maps during the Peninsula War. Virtually of the commercial maps of the second half of the 19th century were lithographed and unattractive, though authentic enough." ^[five]

The modern lithographic process

A 1902 lithograph map (original size 33�-24 cm)

High-book lithography is used presently to produce posters, maps, books, newspapers, and packaging—just about any polish, mass-produced particular with print and graphics on it. Most books, indeed all types of loftier-volume text, are at present printed using offset lithography.

For start lithography, which depends on photographic processes, flexible aluminum, polyester, mylar or paper printing plates are used instead of stone tablets. Modern press plates have a brushed or roughened texture and are covered with a photosensitive emulsion. A photographic negative of the desired paradigm is placed in contact with the emulsion and the plate is exposed to ultraviolet light. Subsequently development, the emulsion shows a reverse of the negative prototype, which is thus a duplicate of the original (positive) image. The image on the plate emulsion can likewise be created past direct laser imaging in a CTP (Computer-To-Plate) device known as a platesetter. The positive image is the emulsion that remains after imaging. Not-image portions of the emulsion accept traditionally been removed by a chemic process, though in recent times plates have come up bachelor which do not require such processing.

Lithography printing for printing maps in Munich

The plate is affixed to a cylinder on a printing press. Dampening rollers apply water, which covers the blank portions of the plate but is repelled by the emulsion of the image expanse. Hydrophobic ink, which is repelled by the water and only adheres to the emulsion of the epitome area, is then practical past the inking rollers.

If this prototype were transferred direct to paper, it would create a mirror-type image and the paper would become too wet. Instead, the plate rolls against a cylinder covered with a rubber blanket, which squeezes away the water, picks up the ink and transfers it to the newspaper with compatible force per unit area. The paper passes between the blanket cylinder and a counter-pressure or impression cylinder and the image is transferred to the paper. Considering the image is first transferred, or commencement to the rubber blanket cylinder, this reproduction method is known equally get-go lithography or offset printing. ^[half-dozen]

Many innovations and technical refinements have been made in printing processes and presses over the years, including the development of presses with multiple units (each containing one printing plate) that can print multi-color images in one pass on both sides of the sheet, and presses that accommodate continuous rolls (webs) of paper, known every bit spider web presses. Another innovation was the continuous dampening system first introduced by Dahlgren instead of the sometime method which is still used on older presses (conventional dampening), which are rollers covered with molleton (cloth) which absorbs the water. This increased command of the water flow to the plate and allowed for ameliorate ink and water balance. Current dampening systems include a "delta effect or vario " which slows the roller in contact with the plate, thus creating a sweeping movement over the ink image to clean impurities known equally "hickies".

Archive of lithographic stones in Munich

The process of lithography printing is seen here. ^[7] This simplified version of a lithographic printing press gives yous an thought of how the printing procedure works. This press is also called an ink pyramid due to the fact that the ink is transferred through several layers of rollers with different purposes. The lithographic printing presses are usually used in newspaper production where fast rolling and jumping rolls are a famous part of the pressing scene in every newspaper product flick.

The advent of desktop publishing made it possible for type and images to be modified easily on personal computers for eventual press past desktop or commercial presses. The development of digital imagesetters enabled print shops to produce negatives for platemaking directly from digital input, skipping the intermediate step of photographing an actual page layout. The development of the digital platesetter during the late 20th century eliminated movie negatives altogether by exposing press plates direct from digital input, a procedure known as computer to plate printing.

Microlithography and nanolithography

rCity of Words, lithograph by Vito Acconci, 1999

Microlithography and nanolithography refer specifically to lithographic patterning methods capable of structuring material on a fine scale. Typically, features smaller than 10 micrometers are considered microlithographic, and features smaller than 100 nanometers are considered nanolithographic. Photolithography is i of these methods, ofttimes applied to semiconductor manufacturing of microchips. Photolithography is besides commonly used for fabricating Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices. Photolithography generally uses a pre-fabricated photomask or reticle as a principal from which the final blueprint is derived.

Although photolithographic technology is the most commercially avant-garde grade of nanolithography, other techniques are also used. Some, for case electron axle lithography, are capable of much greater patterning resolution (sometimes as pocket-sized equally a few nanometers). Electron axle lithography is also important commercially, primarily for its use in the industry of photomasks. Electron beam lithography equally information technology is usually skillful is a form of maskless lithography, in that a mask is not required to generate the final pattern. Instead, the final pattern is created straight from a digital representation on a computer, by controlling an electron axle equally it scans beyond a resist-coated substrate. Electron beam lithography has the disadvantage of existence much slower than photolithography.

In improver to these commercially well-established techniques, a large number of promising microlithographic and nanolithographic technologies exist or are existence adult, including nanoimprint lithography, interference lithography, X-ray lithography, extreme ultraviolet lithography, magnetolithography and scanning probe lithography. Some of these new techniques have been used successfully for small-scale-scale commercial and important research applications. Surface-charge lithography, in fact Plasma desorption mass spectrometry can be straight patterned on polar dielectric crystals via pyroelectric effect, ^[8] Diffraction lithography. ^[9]

Lithography as an creative medium

Grinning Spider past Odilon Redon, 1891

During the first years of the 19th century, lithography had only a limited effect on printmaking, mainly because technical difficulties remained to be overcome. Federal republic of germany was the main center of production in this catamenia. Godefroy Engelmann, who moved his press from Mulhouse to Paris in 1816, largely succeeded in resolving the technical problems, and during the 1820s lithography was adopted by artists such as Delacroix and Géricault. London also became a center, and some of Géricault's prints were in fact produced there. Goya in Bordeaux produced his last series of prints past lithography—The Bulls of Bordeaux of 1828. Past the mid-century the initial enthusiasm had somewhat diminished in both countries, although the use of lithography was increasingly favored for commercial applications, which included the prints of Daumier, published in newspapers. Rodolphe Bresdin and Jean-François Millet as well connected to practice the medium in France, and Adolf Menzel in Germany. In 1862 the publisher Cadart tried to initiate a portfolio of lithographs by various artists which was not successful but included several prints by Manet. The revival began during the 1870s, peculiarly in France with artists such as Odilon Redon, Henri Fantin-Latour and Degas producing much of their work in this fashion. The need for strictly limited editions to maintain the price had now been realized, and the medium became more accepted.

Self Portrait with Skeleton Arm by Edvard Munch

In the 1890s color lithography became popular with French artists, Toulouse-Lautrec well-nigh notably of all, and by 1900 the medium in both colour and monotone was an accepted part of printmaking, although France and the US accept used it more than other countries.

During the 20th century, a group of artists, including Braque, Calder, Chagall, Dufy, Léger, Matisse, Miró, and Picasso, rediscovered the largely undeveloped fine art form of lithography thanks to the Mourlot Studios, also known as Atelier Mourlot, a Parisian printshop founded in 1852 past the Mourlot family. The Atelier Mourlot originally specialized in the printing of wallpaper; but it was transformed when the founder'southward grandson, Fernand Mourlot, invited a number of 20th-century artists to explore the complexities of fine art press. Mourlot encouraged the painters to piece of work directly on lithographic stones in order to create original artworks that could then be executed under the management of master printers in pocket-sized editions. The combination of modernistic artist and master printer resulted in lithographs which were used equally posters to promote the artists' work. ^{[10] [xi]}

Grant Forest, George Bellows, Alphonse Mucha, Max Kahn, Pablo Picasso, Eleanor Coen, Jasper Johns, David Hockney, Susan Dorothea White and Robert Rauschenberg are a few of the artists who accept produced well-nigh of their prints in the medium. K. C. Escher is considered a primary of lithography, and many of his prints were created using this process. More than than other printmaking techniques, printmakers in lithography still largely depend on access to good printers, and the evolution of the medium has been greatly influenced past when and where these have been established.

Further information: Listing of printmakers

As a special course of lithography, the serilith process is sometimes used. Seriliths are mixed media original prints created in a procedure in which an artist uses the lithograph and serigraph processes. The separations for both processes are paw-fatigued by the creative person. The serilith technique is used primarily to create fine art limited print editions. ^[12]

Gallery

• 

  Washington'due south Residence, Loftier Street, Philadelphia, 1830 lithograph by William 50. Breton.

• 

  Hé! La chian..... li....li....li..... [It'due south a blood...dy...dy...dy... mess], lithograph of Louis-Philippe of France by Honoré Daumier, 1834

• 

  An 1836 lithograph of Mexican women making tortillas by Carl Nebel.

• 

  An example of a 19th-century lithograph depicting royal Afghan soldiers of the Durrani Empire in Afghanistan. (1847)

• 

  Alfred Concanen's 1867 design for Champagne Charlie

• 

  At Eternity'due south Gate, 1882 lithograph by Vincent van Gogh.

• 

  Bounding main anemones from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur (Artforms of Nature), 1904.

• 

  In the Park, Low-cal – George Bellows 1916

See also

• Block printing
• Color printing
• Etching
• Flexography
• German language inventors and discoverers
• History of graphic design
• Letterpress printing
• Lineography
• Lithography using MeV ions – Proton beam writing
• Photochrom
• Theodore Regensteiner inventor of the four-color lithographic press
• Rotogravure
• Seriolithograph
• Stencil lithography
• Stereolithography
• Typography

References

1. ^ ^{a b c} Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. (1998) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 146 ISBN 0-471-29198-6
2. ^ Carter, Rob, Ben Mean solar day, Philip Meggs. Typographic Blueprint: Form and Communication, Tertiary Edition. (2002) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p xi
3. ^ Pennel ER, ed. (1915). Lithography and Lithographers. London: T. Fisher Unwin Publisher. http://www.archive.org/details/lithographylitho00penn.
4. ^ A. B. Hoen, Give-and-take of the Requisite Qualities of Lithographic Limestone, with Report on Tests of the Lithographic Stone of Mitchell Canton, Iowa, Iowa Geological Survey Annual Written report, 1902, Des Moines, 1903; pages 339–352.
5. ^ Lynam, Edward. 1944. British Maps and Map Makers. London: West. Collins. Page 46.
6. ^ see diagram at compassrose.com
7. ^ http://world wide web.istc.illinois.edu/info/library_docs/manuals/printing/images/offsetlitho.gif
8. ^ Surface-accuse lithography for straight pdms micro-patterning S. Grilli, V. Vespini, P. Ferraro, Langmuir 24, 13262–13265 (2008). http://dx.doi.org/x.1021/la803046j
9. ^ Flexible coherent diffraction lithography by tunable phase arrays in lithium niobate crystals Grand. Paturzo, S. Grilli, S. Mailis, Thousand. Coppola, M. Iodice, M. Gioffré and P. Ferraro Optics Communications 281, 1950–1953 (2008). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.optcom.2007.12.056
10. ^ History of 20th century lithography past Picasso, Matisse, Chagall, Braque, Leger at Atelier Mourlot, French Constitute Alliance Française ^{[expressionless link]}
11. ^ Mourlot, Fernand. Twentieth Century Posters. Wellfleet Press: Secaucus, New Jersey, 1989
12. ^ What is a Serilith?

External links

• Twyman, Michael. Early on Lithographed Books. Pinner, Middlesex: Private Libraries Association, 1990
• Lithography and other printmaking definitions
• Museum of Mod Art information on printing techniques and examples of prints
• The Invention of Lithography, Aloys Senefelder, (Eng. trans. 1911)(a searchable facsimile at the Academy of Georgia Libraries; DjVu and layered PDF format)
• Theo De Smedt's website, author of "What's lithography"
• Extensive data on Honoré Daumier and his life and work, including his entire output of lithographs
• Digital work catalog to 4000 lithographs and 1000 wood engravings
• Detailed examination of the processes involved in the creation of a typical scholarly lithographic illustration in the 19th century
• Nederlands Steendrukmuseum
• Delacroix's Faust lithographs at the Davison Art Center, Wesleyan Academy
• A brief celebrated overview of Lithography. Academy of Delaware Library. Includes citations for 19th century books using early lithographic illustrations.
• Philadelphia on Stone: The First L Years of Commercial Lithography in Philadelphia. Library Company of Philadelphia. Provides an celebrated overview of the commercial trade in Philadelphia and links to a biographical dictionary of over 500 Philadelphia lithographers and catalog of more than than 1300 lithographs documenting Philadelphia.
• Swiss Cities

turnernorre1967.blogspot.com

Source: http://p2k.ipr.ac.id/IT/en/112-9/lithography_2742_p2k-ipr.html